This week's newsletter will finally ponder the 19th century's most vexing diplomatic conundrum: the Schleswig-Holstein question. There will be limited cause for levity but I am sure it will greatly enrich everybody's knowledge of the German-Danish border regions in general, and the regions of Schleswig and Holstein in particular.
A complex problem - In 1873, an Italian book about political and military events of the year 1861* quoted the British statesman Lord Palmerston thusly: "The Schleswig-Holstein question is so complicated, only three men in Europe have ever understood it. One was Prince Albert, who is dead. The second was a German professor who became mad. I am the third and I have forgotten all about it.” To understand the exasperation of this seasoned man of diplomacy, we have to travel 1000 years back in time to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (which was surprisingly neither holy, nor Roman, nor particularly German - but very complex, as seen on the map** of its northern regions below).
It was at this time, that we have the first accounts telling us about conflict over the border regions between Danish kings and "the Germans" (using the term extremely liberally). When all was said and done, the Germans reigned over Holstein while the Danes kept all the territories north of the river Eider, including Schleswig.
The Duke of Schleswig - In 1080, Canute the Holy, king of Denmark, made his younger brother, Olaf the Hungry, Duke of Schleswig. After Canute's death, Olaf also became king of Denmark. 300 years later (in 1364), Olaf's family lost the Danish crown but retained possession of Schleswig. Since the rulers of Schleswig and Holstein were closely related families, it took only one more death to see both duchies suddenly ruled by the same man - the Duke of Holstein (who now possessed land in two different countries).
King and country - In 1460, Denmark managed to take Holstein from the Germans and a peace treaty was signed. It was above all this treaty that caused Lord Palmerstone's headache 500 years later. It stated:
The County of Holstein should henceforth be a possession of the King of Denmark (but crucially, not of the Danish kingdom itself)
Schleswig and Holstein should be 'forever inseparable',
In other words, the Danish King possessed the two duchies but they were not part of the Kingdom of Denmark. They were just possessions of the king.
Succession - The situation got more complicated in 1665, when the Kingdom of Denmark reformed their succession laws allowing women to inherit land and property. Schleswig and Holstein, not being part of that kingdom, kept their succession law that excluded women from inheriting.
The 19th century - In 1815, the Congress of Vienna tried to restore the old order of Europe after a short but ambitious Frenchman had comprehensively smashed it. However, that very same treaty set off a chain of events that lead to much diplomatic head scratching and ultimately to war by including Holstein in the German Federation. Since Holstein was owned by the Danish king, he effectively ruled the kingdom of Denmark and the duchy of Holstein which now happened to be inside the German Federation (which was not yet a problem). However, when the last male heir to the Danish throne died in 1846, the Holstein succession laws ensured that the next male heir (the duke of Augustenburg) inherited it - who was not a Dane (while the Danes found themselves a new king). When the Danes asked for their duchy back, the Prussians sent troops in 1848 (fueled by their newly discovered nationalism). In typical 19th century fashion, the British Empire was afraid of any Prussian ambitions and supported Sweden sending troops to intervene (which were also supported by the Russians and Austrians). The Prussians backed down. Then came Otto von Bismarck who made friends with the British and the Austrians and waited until Russia was not looking to attack and beat Denmark. Being allies, Austria got Holstein until shortly thereafter Bismarck declared war on Austria and just took it back. It took another world war to finally settle the Schleswig-Holstein question when, after a referendum, northern Schleswig merged with Denmark.
In summary, resolving 1000 years of questionable treaties, dynastic succession laws, and 19th century nationalism peacefully was too much even for seasoned diplomats like Palmerston. It was also a conflict that neatly encapsulates the 19th century - full of shifting alliances, realpolitik, unhealthy nationalism, Bismarck, and ultimately failed diplomacy.
Here is a map of the area today:
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*Un Po’ Più Di Luce Sugli Eventi Politici E Militari Dell’ Anno 1866 - by Alfonso La Marmora
**The map is obviously in German since there is no other map out there with the same level of detail. Here is the entire map in all its glorious detail: Wikipedia link
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